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The Impact Sociological Theories Have on Religion Essay

The Impact Sociological Theories Have on Religion Sociological theories are usually constructed from ideas of early sociologist through scientific research in regards to developing a better understanding of how our social world operates. By gaining this type of knowledge, sociologist can better explain (to those who are interested) the social world that we have grown accustom to, as well as make predictions of how the social world will develop and function in the future. Three are three major categories that are classified under sociological theories: functionalist theory, conflict theory, and symbolic interaction theory. All three of these theories are known to have an impact on social institutions such as families, healthcare,†¦show more content†¦All of these religions, or religious practices, operate to form a guide line for survival within its culture, along with providing a source of elegance, and/or harmony. Even though guide lines are known as rules, or laws, it is s till the concept of religion that provides the human race with an idea of what and how we are supposed to adhere to life’s general purpose. It helps to provide people with a greater understanding of true values and morals. Religion also supports the stipulations of why people should not life their life or conduct themselves in a certain manner, but this too, is quality that varies per religion and per society. The conflict theory is a theory that places more focus of competition, inequality, and differences in one’s perspective that others may challenge to prove their view to be beneficial, as well as accurate. Conventional wisdom suggests that religious armed conflicts are more intractable that nonreligious conflicts (Svensson, 2007). Could it be that the expectations that leads to the conflict within religion are due to perceptions that nothing is equivalent to the values that each denomination holds. As long as more than one religion exists in the world, there will always be a difference of opinion. Thus, causing a long line of debates, conflicts, and/or arguments to uphold which religion is truthfully of the correct doctrines, as well as interpretations. Also, many religions are constantly trying toShow MoreRelatedSociology as a Perspective 1332 Words   |  6 PagesSociologist argue that â€Å"the sociological perspective is a way of thinking; a form of consciousness that challenges familiar understandings of ourselves and of others, so we can critically asses the truth commonly held assumptions† (Micionis and Plummer 2008:10). This essay supports this statement by analysing and discussing the significance of sociological perspective in our everyday lives. According to Peter L. Berger sociological perspective is described as the link between societal events andRead MoreKarl Marx, Max Weber And Emile Durkheim1447 Words   |  6 PagesReligion has been, and forever will be a part of culture and society. Karl Marx, Max Weber, and Emil e Durkheim are the top three most important figures in sociology; and although each of them viewed religion differently, I strongly believe that they understood its power, and demonstrated its importance to people and societies. As such, I will utilize all three of these great minds, to demonstrate religion as an important and permanent part of culture and society. Let s begin with Karl Marx, andRead MoreSexuality : The Behavioral And Sociological Theory Essay1587 Words   |  7 Pagessexuality has progressed through history, theories have been created based on research and experiments that scholars have implemented, based on their own perceptions of human behavior. 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In order to be able to study these influences in detail and thereby explain, analyse and predict entrepreneurial actions, economists like Schumpeter, Webber etc., proposed theories of entrepreneurship in the economic, social and psychological context. Although it is necessary to study entrepreneurs in all of thee contexts in order to develop a holistic understanding of them, this paper intends to concentrate on t he social influencesRead MoreEmile Durkheim and The Science of Sociology Essay1294 Words   |  6 Pagesat the Ecole Normale and then became the first chair of the science of Sociology in the early 1900’s. Durkheim published several works on different topics in sociology including suicide, religion, and the division of labor. Literature Review One of his many works, Le Suicide, looks into the sociological aspects of suicide. He did not want to predict individual suicide but rather to study suicide rates. He looked at it from more of a statistical and analytical method. Suicide was definedRead MoreEssay On Domestic Violence871 Words   |  4 Pages abuse and intimidation between people who are or have been in an intimate relationship. The perpetrator uses violence to control and dominate the other person. This causes fear, physical harm and/or psychological harm. Domestic violence is a violation of human rights, (the White Ribbon Australia). The domestic violence abuse includes sexual, verbal, physical, emotional, financial and psychological abuse. This essay will focus on the sociological imagination of the issue and will discuss the statisticRead MoreEssay about The Life of Emile Durkheim1371 Words   |  6 Pages a traditional Jewish ceremony held at age thirteen where a boy receives religious responsibility. He was interested in Catholicism for a short period of time but he decided to turn away from religion all together. This did not end his interest in the religion phenomena. He would continue to study religion from an agnostic stand point for the rest of his life. He began attending College d’ Epinal where he was able to skip two years of schooling and easily earn his diploma in Letters in 1874

Strategic Management and Leadership Development and Change

Question: Describe about the Report for Strategic Management and Leadership for Development and Change. Answer: Assessing monitoring and measurement techniques of change management within an organization After conducting a change management within the organization, it is essential for the top authorities and managers to monitor the changes at workplace over the course of time. It helps in understanding the mentality of the employees, their problems, and benefits with the changes occurred in the organization[1]. Monitoring of employees also facilitates the top authorities in gaining knowledge regarding employees outlook, attitude and performance after the change management has occurred. It should be done while the change process is going on within the organization as it helps in identification of places where further modification is required[2]. Based on it, further amendments can be implemented to make this change management successful across the workplace. It helps in improving the satisfaction level of employees and managers and hence their working quality and quantity both gets improved[3]. While making changes within the organization, it is important to focus on the employees at the workplace. Apart from taking decisions regarding the overall benefit of the organization's productivity and an output; it is equally necessary to take certain steps to provide comfort to employees[4]. It is because if the employees are content and satisfied with changes at the workplace, they are motivated to work better, and retention rate of employees also gets improved. So, the focus is to be given to human resources of the organization as they are one of the vital components of the organization. The changes made should be pertained to employee satisfaction and motivation to retain them within organization[5]. Both qualitative and quantitative measures are applied for judging the performance of employees. It assists the researcher in analyzing employee performance, employee engagement, and employee satisfaction, working capacity, improvements in working attitude and behaviors across the workplace[6]. The overall productivity of the organization and the rate of retention of employees clearly depict the satisfaction rate of employees. The measures applied are graphs, presentations, surveys and vivid analysis of collected information and data[7]. These measures help in better understanding of the changes that occurred within the organization and the level of success these changes have achieved among the employees. It, therefore, helps in identification of the change aspects that needs more modification or should continue within the organization[8] Figure 1: Measuring Techniques of Change Management within organization[9] Analyzing strategies for minimizing adverse effects of change Change within an organization is bound to face certain resistances from the stakeholders; that strongly impacts on the overall organizational operations and productivity. It is important for an organization to adopt strategies for minimizing the adverse effects of change[10]. One of the strategies that can be adopted for minimizing the adverse effect of change is constant monitoring of the employees working. It should be done to see whether employees are content with the change or need any other modifications for better workplace structure or culture[11]. Another method of minimizing the adverse change effect within the organization is through proper and meaningful communication. It, therefore, helps in avoiding ay miscommunication between the employees and top authorities. Proper training sessions are to be conducted within the organization to reduce the fear of employees in facing something new and unknown[12]. It is seen that some of these strategies as mentioned above have worked well, and some of them need modification. The strategies those went well with the change management are constant observation, the involvement of stakeholders, communication, usage of social media and training sessions[13]. It, therefore, involved the problems and troubles that occurred within the organization to which, appropriate solutions are given. On the other hand, the strategies like the creation of small wins, centralized decision-making process and laid back attitude towards conflict resolution were not strong enough to cope up with the change management. It may be due to improper training sessions of employees and miscommunication of the changes[14]. Force Field Analysis is a common tool that helps in systematic analyzing of diverse factors in identifying barriers or resistances in change management. It is done for understanding the reasons behind stakeholders acceptance and rejection of the changes within the organization[15]. Emotional intelligence and self-awareness are used that helps in understanding the forces that drive or restrains employees from the workplace. It is a five stepped procedure that comprises of defining a problem, defining the change objectives, identification of driving factors, identification of the restraining factors and developing a complete change strategy[16]. These steps help the organization in identifying areas of the problem after change management has occurred within the organization. A complete analysis of these processes also helps in avoiding any conflicts at the workplace and doesnt hamper the success and productivity of the organization[17]. Figure 2: Force Field analysis to identify the resistance or barriers[18] Identification of processes for reviewing the impact of change When a change has occurred within an organization, it is obvious that it will have an impact on the overall business. This impact is to be analyzed for identifying and understanding several potential consequences of change, estimation of requirements for the change and its effectiveness[19]. A change in a business process is reviewed through resource allocation, its effectiveness its application as well as through its scheduling. So, every organization should be prepared for change impact in the organization. The process of reviewing the impact of the change in an organization is a five stage process. The steps are, therefore: preparing for impact analysis, brainstorm major affected areas, identification of all areas, evaluating impacts and managing the consequences[20]. In the 1st step that is preparing for impact analysis, it is necessary to gather an alright team with correct access to information. The purpose and provided solution should be clearly defined as well as people involved in this change also need to be well-informed[21]. In the 2nd step that is brainstorming the major affected areas, the organization needs to think of the impact that change management may cause to the different departments. The 3rd step of the process is the identification of all areas those impacted by the change should be done. It, therefore, helps in mapping out the several business processes of operation as well as any modifications required to it[22]. The 4th step of the process is the evaluation of impacts on several stakeholders and businesses processes. This evaluation helps in enlisting the entire positive as well as negative impacts on organizational decisions along with its consequences. The 5th step of this process is the management of consequences as a par t of decision-making process. Several actions are to be taken that helps in managing and mitigating the consequences[23]. Figure 3: Process of reviewing the impact of change[24] After the change management has occurred, it is necessary to ensure that all departments of the organization are working well and are in harmony. McKinseys 7-S framework involves seven interdependent factors that help in improving organizational performance as well as the implementation of proposed strategy[25]. The strategy helps in maintaining as well as building competitive advantages over the competition. The structure should be well-defined to avoid confusion of the employees while reporting. The systems also include the daily activities as well as procedures for engaging the staff members[26]. In the share values, the organization's core values are shared by corporate ethics and culture. In the style and staff section, the leadership style, as well as general capabilities of the employees, are measured respectively after the change management process. The last section is skilled where actual competencies and abilities of employees are measured[27]. Figure 4: McKinseys 7-S framework[28] Analyzing results of the review In recent times, it is seen that change management is mainly focused towards organizational issues such as leadership, culture and motivation. These elements are the essential factors of an organizations success[29]. So, reviewing the results after change management has occurred within the organization is important. The review of several changes occurred within the organization signifies the levels of improvement of motivation and culture within the workplace. The hard factors like timely achievement, revenue growth, reduced cost and increased inquiries are measured through analysis of information and data[30]. The soft measures like motivation, behaviors and morale of employees and managers are measured through surveys, forums and feedback. While reviewing the hard measures like a timely achievement, it is to be seen that whether the organization has improved in is productivity as well as timely delivery of its products and services[31]. The revenue growth is measured through viewing the timely graph of its output and profit margin the organization sees after the change management. Both the graphs about before change and after the change are compared for analyzing the results. Moreover, the increased inquiries that are measured through analysis of data also shows the level of involvement of employees regarding their work[32]. It helps in estimating their level of motivation and involvement in organization growth after change management has occurred. The reduced cost also shows the maximum and effective utilization of resources. It means the resources are well allocated and is efficiently used by employees for maximum productivity[33]. On the other hand, the motivation of the employees is measured through periodic surveys and through taking feedback. It helps in understanding the employees outlook and mentality towards change management and their level of embracing it for business success[34]. The morale of the employees is also important to measure as it signifies the level of ethics, rules and regulations of employees and their adherence towards maintaining organizational culture. The behavior of the employees also needs to be measured as it helps in understanding the employees embracement towards changing behavior and culture within organization[35]. The higher satisfaction level of employees and managers clearly denotes the employees high level of encouragement and satisfaction with the organizational change management. Findings of the impact review The findings of the impact review are clearly depicted through discussion, Webinar, reporting and presentation. After the change has taken place in an organization, review of these changes is done periodically to analyze the effectiveness and demerits of the changes. It is done to provide solutions to the problems occurred during the change management[36]. Through discussion, the employees, managers, workers and top officials understand the purpose of change management and the aspects those are undergoing changes within the organization. It is an open method of communication that satisfies employees for involving them in the change. Moreover, the findings of the impacts of change management can also be done through webinars. It helps in providing new insights into the development as well as also encourages innovative ideas and framework regarding the better impact of the change[37]. It also signifies the principle behind the change and discusses the positive implementation of it in t he workplace. It also ensures that both senders and receivers have a clear understanding of the change and the communication between the two should be same without any modification. In addition to this, reporting is another method of understanding the impact of change management within the organizations. It, therefore, engages the employees and managers to adhere to the changes occurred within the organization. Any problems regarding the change management should be reported to the top authorities so that they can analyze the problems and take appropriate solutions to solve them[38]. Even more, the reporting can also be done if any of the changes is found appropriate and is easily embraced by the employees and managers; so that further modification can be done to it. Another method is providing a presentation to the employees and managers regarding the changes occurred in the organization. The graphs and diagrams are shown at the workplace regarding the troubles and positive vibes the employees have faced after the change management. It, therefore, helps in finding out certain opportunities as well as strategies for betterment and modification of the changes take n place in the organization. Through these findings, problems faced by the employees are discussed with appropriate solutions to these. It, therefore, makes the change management successful within the organization[39]. Moreover, it also reduces mistrust and disbelief of employees on the top management. Figure 5: Methods of finding impacts of change management within organizations[40] References Berlinger, L.R. and Sitkin, S.B., 2015. Paradox And Transformation-Toward A Theory Of Change In Organization And Management-Quinn, Re, Cameron, Ks. Burke, W.W., 2013. Organization change: Theory and practice. Sage Publications. Cameron, E., and Green, M., 2015. Making sense of change management: a complete guide to the models, tools and techniques of organizational change. Kogan Page Publishers. Chang, J.F., 2016. Business process management systems: strategy and implementation. CRC Press. Creasey, T., Jamieson, D.W., Rothwell, W.J. and Severini, G., 2016. Exploring the relationship between organization development and change management. Practicing Organization Development: Leading Transformation and Change, Fourth Edition, pp.330-337. Cummings, T.G. and Worley, C.G., 2014. Organization development and change. Cengage learning. Davenport, T.H., 2013. Process innovation: reengineering work through information technology. Harvard Business Press. Doherty, B., Haugh, H. and Lyon, F., 2014. Social enterprises as hybrid organizations: A review and research agenda. International Journal of Management Reviews, 16(4), pp.417-436. Frankland, R., Mitchell, C.M., Ferguson, J.D., Sziklai, A.T., Verma, A.K., Popowski, J.E. and Sturgeon, D.H., Applications In Internet Time, Llc, 2013.Integrated change management unit. U.S. Patent 8,484,111. Free, C., Phillips, G., Galli, L., Watson, L., Felix, L., Edwards, P., Patel, V. and Haines, A., 2013. The effectiveness of mobile-health technology-based health behavior change or disease management interventions for health care consumers: a systematic review. PLoS med, 10(1), p.e1001362. Fullan, M., 2014. Leading in a culture of change personal action guide and workbook. John Wiley Sons. Galvin, B.M., Lange, D. and Ashforth, B.E., 2015. Narcissistic organizational identification: Seeing oneself as central to the organization's identity.Academy of Management Review, 40(2), pp.163-181. Goetsch, D.L. and Davis, S.B., 2014. Quality management for organizational excellence. pearson. Harmon, P., 2014. Business process change. Morgan Kaufmann. Hayes, J., 2014. The theory and practice of change management. Palgrave Macmillan. He, H. and Brown, A.D., 2013. Organizational identity and organizational identification A review of the literature and suggestions for future research.Group Organization Helfat, C.E. and Peteraf, M.A., 2015. Managerial cognitive capabilities and the microfoundations of dynamic capabilities. Strategic Management Journal, 36(6), pp.831-850. Jones, D.J. and Recardo, R.J., 2013. Leading and Implementing Business Change Management: Making Change Stick in the Contemporary Organization: Making Change Stick in the Contemporary Organization. Routledge. Kerzner, H.R., 2013. Project management: a systems approach to planning, scheduling, and controlling. John Wiley Sons. Kondalkar, V.G., 2013. Organization effectiveness and change management. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.. Langley, A., Smallman, C., Tsoukas, H. and Van de Ven, A.H., 2013. Process studies of change in organization and management: unveiling temporality, activity, and flow. Academy of Management Journal, 56(1), pp.1-13. Mostafavi, S., 2016. Study Effectiveness of Change Management in Government Organization (Case Study of Iran Telecommunication Company). International Journal of Humanities and Cultural Studies (IJHCS) ISSN 2356-5926, 3(1), pp.1954-1965. Paulsen, N., Callan, V.J., Ayoko, O. and Saunders, D., 2013. Transformational leadership and innovation in an RD organization experiencing major change. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 26(3), pp.595-610. Pierce, J.R. and Aguinis, H., 2013. The too-much-of-a-good-thing effect in management. Journal of Management, 39(2), pp.313-338. Pyzdek, T. and Keller, P.A., 2014. The six sigma handbook (p. 25). McGraw-Hill Education. Rafferty, A.E., Jimmieson, N.L. and Armenakis, A.A., 2013. Change readiness a multilevel review. Journal of Management, 39(1), pp.110-135. Rei, M., 2012. Change Management: A Balanced and Blended Approach. BoDBooks on Demand. Rice, A.K., 2013. Productivity and social organization: The Ahmedabad experiment: Technical innovation, work organization and management. Routledge. Rosemann, M. and vom Brocke, J., 2015. The six core elements of business process management. In Handbook on Business Process Management 1 (pp. 105-122). Springer Berlin Heidelberg. Rosenbaum, D., More, E. and Steane, P., 2016. A longitudinal qualitative case study of change in nonprofits: Suggesting a new approach to the management of change. Journal of Management Organization, pp.1-18. Rothaermel, F.T., 2015. Strategic management. McGraw-Hill. Rummler, G.A. and Brache, A.P., 2012. Improving performance: How to manage the white space on the organization chart. John Wiley Sons. Rushton, A., Croucher, P. and Baker, P., 2014. The handbook of logistics and distribution management: Understanding the supply chain. Kogan Page Publishers. Samuel, K., 2013. The Effects Of Change Management in An Organization: A Case Study of National University of Rwanda (Nur). Wyno Journal of Management Business Studies, 1(1), pp.1-18. Schalock, R.L., Lee, T., Verdugo, M., Swart, K., Claes, C., van Loon, J. and Lee, C.S., 2014. An evidence-based approach to organization evaluation and change in human service organizations evaluation and program planning.Evaluation and program planning, 45, pp.110-118. Senge, P.M., 2014. The dance of change: The challenges to sustaining momentum in a learning organization. Crown Business. Speelman, E.N., Groot, J.C., Garca-Barrios, L.E., Kok, K., van Keulen, H. and Tittonell, P., 2014. From coping to adaptation to economic and institutional changetrajectories of change in land-use management and social organization in a Biosphere Reserve community, Mexico. Land Use Policy, 41, pp.31-44. Starbuck, W.H. and Hedberg, B., 2015. How organizations learn from success and failure. Available at SSRN 2708267. Turner, N., Swart, J. and Maylor, H., 2013. Mechanisms for managing ambidexterity: A review and research agenda. International Journal of Management Reviews, 15(3), pp.317-332. Van der Voet, J., 2014. The effectiveness and specificity of change management in a public organization: Transformational leadership and a bureaucratic organizational structure. European Management Journal, 32(3), pp.373-382. [1] Cummings, T.G. and Worley, C.G., 2014.Organization development and change. Cengage learning. [2] Senge, P.M., 2014.The dance of change: The challenges to sustaining momentum in a learning organization. Crown Business. [3] Cameron, E., and Green, M., 2015. Making sense of change management: a complete guide to the models, tools and techniques of organizational change. Kogan Page Publishers. [4] Langley, A., Smallman, C., Tsoukas, H. and Van de Ven, A.H., 2013. Process studies of change in organization and management: unveiling temporality, activity, and flow.Academy of Management Journal,56(1), pp.1-13. [5] Goetsch, D.L. and Davis, S.B., 2014.Quality management for organizational excellence. pearson. [6] Creasey, T., Jamieson, D.W., Rothwell, W.J. and Severini, G., 2016. Exploring the relationship between organization development and change management.Practicing Organization Development: Leading Transformation and Change, Fourth Edition, pp.330-337. [7] Van der Voet, J., 2014. The effectiveness and specificity of change management in a public organization: Transformational leadership and a bureaucratic organizational structure.European Management Journal,32(3), pp.373-382. [8] Hayes, J., 2014.The theory and practice of change management. Palgrave Macmillan. [9] Burke, W.W., 2013.Organization change: Theory and practice. Sage Publications. [10] Speelman, E.N., Groot, J.C., Garca-Barrios, L.E., Kok, K., van Keulen, H. and Tittonell, P., 2014. From coping to adaptation to economic and institutional changetrajectories of change in land-use management and social organization in a Biosphere Reserve community, Mexico.Land Use Policy,41, pp.31-44. [11] Kondalkar, V.G., 2013.Organization effectiveness and change management. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.. [12] Frankland, R., Mitchell, C.M., Ferguson, J.D., Sziklai, A.T., Verma, A.K., Popowski, J.E. and Sturgeon, D.H., Applications In Internet Time, Llc, 2013.Integrated change management unit. U.S. Patent 8,484,111. [13] Berlinger, L.R. and Sitkin, S.B., 2015. Paradox And Transformation-Toward A Theory Of Change In Organization And Management-Quinn, Re, Cameron, Ks. [14] Samuel, K., 2013. The Effects Of Change Management in An Organization: A Case Study of National University of Rwanda (Nur).Wyno Journal of Management Business Studies,1(1), pp.1-18. [15] Rosenbaum, D., More, E. and Steane, P., 2016. A longitudinal qualitative case study of change in nonprofits: Suggesting a new approach to the management of change.Journal of Management Organization, pp.1-18. [16] Kerzner, H.R., 2013.Project management: a systems approach to planning, scheduling, and controlling. John Wiley Sons. [17] Jones, D.J. and Recardo, R.J., 2013.Leading and Implementing Business Change Management: Making Change Stick in the Contemporary Organization: Making Change Stick in the Contemporary Organization. Routledge. [18] Mostafavi, S., 2016. Study Effectiveness of Change Management in Government Organization (Case Study of Iran Telecommunication Company).International Journal of Humanities and Cultural Studies (IJHCS)à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹ ISSN 2356-5926,3(1), pp.1954-1965. [19] Rei, M., 2012.Change Management: A Balanced and Blended Approach. BoDBooks on Demand. [20] Paulsen, N., Callan, V.J., Ayoko, O. and Saunders, D., 2013. Transformational leadership and innovation in an RD organization experiencing major change.Journal of Organizational Change Management,26(3), pp.595-610. [21] Schalock, R.L., Lee, T., Verdugo, M., Swart, K., Claes, C., van Loon, J. and Lee, C.S., 2014. An evidence-based approach to organization evaluation and change in human service organizations evaluation and program planning.Evaluation and program planning,45, pp.110-118. [22] Fullan, M., 2014.Leading in a culture of change personal action guide and workbook. John Wiley Sons. [23] Rice, A.K., 2013.Productivity and social organization: The Ahmedabad experiment: Technical innovation, work organization and management. Routledge. [24] Rosemann, M. and vom Brocke, J., 2015. The six core elements of business process management. InHandbook on Business Process Management 1(pp. 105-122). Springer Berlin Heidelberg. [25] Rafferty, A.E., Jimmieson, N.L. and Armenakis, A.A., 2013. Change readiness a multilevel review.Journal of Management,39(1), pp.110-135. [26] Davenport, T.H., 2013.Process innovation: reengineering work through information technology. Harvard Business Press. [27] He, H. and Brown, A.D., 2013. Organizational identity and organizational identification A review of the literature and suggestions for future research.Group Organization Management,38(1), pp.3-35. [28] Free, C., Phillips, G., Galli, L., Watson, L., Felix, L., Edwards, P., Patel, V. and Haines, A., 2013. The effectiveness of mobile-health technology-based health behavior change or disease management interventions for health care consumers: a systematic review. PLoS med,10(1), p.e1001362. [29] Harmon, P., 2014.Business process change. Morgan Kaufmann. [30] Chang, J.F., 2016.Business process management systems: strategy and implementation. CRC Press. [31] Helfat, C.E. and Peteraf, M.A., 2015. Managerial cognitive capabilities and the microfoundations of dynamic capabilities.Strategic Management Journal,36(6), pp.831-850. [32] Pierce, J.R. and Aguinis, H., 2013. The too-much-of-a-good-thing effect in management.Journal of Management,39(2), pp.313-338. [33] Rothaermel, F.T., 2015.Strategic management. McGraw-Hill. [34] Turner, N., Swart, J. and Maylor, H., 2013. Mechanisms for managing ambidexterity: A review and research agenda.International Journal of Management Reviews,15(3), pp.317-332. [35] Doherty, B., Haugh, H. and Lyon, F., 2014. Social enterprises as hybrid organizations: A review and research agenda.International Journal of Management Reviews,16(4), pp.417-436. [36] Rummler, G.A. and Brache, A.P., 2012.Improving performance: How to manage the white space on the organization chart. John Wiley Sons. [37] Pyzdek, T. and Keller, P.A., 2014.The six sigma handbook(p. 25). McGraw-Hill Education. [38] Rushton, A., Croucher, P. and Baker, P., 2014.The handbook of logistics and distribution management: Understanding the supply chain. Kogan Page Publishers. [39] Galvin, B.M., Lange, D. and Ashforth, B.E., 2015. Narcissistic organizational identification: Seeing oneself as central to the organization's identity.Academy of Management Review,40(2), pp.163-181. [40] Starbuck, W.H. and Hedberg, B., 2015. How organizations learn from success and failure.Available at SSRN 2708267.

Malinowskis Participant-Observation in Modern Anthropology free essay sample

Where does Malinowskis conceptualization of participant-observation sit in the landscape of modern anthropological fieldwork? A primary objective of the modern ethnographer is to glean insights into the ways people relate to and interact with one another and the world around them. Through participant-observation, Malinowski (1922) offered a valuable tool with which to uncover these insights and understandings, the ethnographer. The ethnographer as research tool has become the basis of much modern anthropological research. As a method, it was a radical departure from the typical approach to fieldwork used in Malinowskis time which nvolved techniques that kept the ethnographer distanced and distinct from those they studied (McGee Warms, 2008). In his conceptualization of participant- observation, Malinowski identified three primary objectives for the fieldworker. First, to record the feel and flow of daily life as a member of the community; second, to create a framework of community organization based on a scientific perspective; and third, to collect detailed personal information particular to the community of study (Malinowski, 1922). We will write a custom essay sample on Malinowskis Participant-Observation in Modern Anthropology or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page These goals and methodologies remain principal to the design and analysis of modern anthropological research. However, they also raise a number of questions about the practical, paradigmatic and ethical difficulties associated with anthropological fieldwork. Discussed below are the goals identified by Malinowski, some of the issues they raise, and how they have come to be interpreted within modern anthropological practice. The premise of participant-observation draws the researcher inside the daily life of those they study, with the many small experiences, interactions, intimacies and resulting integration providing an entr ©e into cultural life not afforded the lone observer or outsider. Malinowski took great pains to ensure hat he eventually came to feel part of the tribe, an insider, Joining in himself in what is going on rather than simply recording the proceedings (Malinowski, 1922, p. 21). Achieving insider, as opposed to outsider, status within a community of study is a primary goal for many anthropologists in the field. However, the concept of a dichotomous insider/outsider positionality is a complex issue that is coming under increasing scrutiny within the field (Kirby, Greaves Reid, 2006). Malinowskis (1922) methodology of ethnographer as tool is based in two contradictory imperatives, each centered on location. First, the researcher must locate themselves intimately within the group under study in order to gain a complete and fleshed out account of community life and second, that it is not possible, when located within and as a member of a group, to have the necessary perspective to interpret community life (Malinowski, 1922). Claire Sterk (1996) challenges the ethnographer as insider viewpoint through her work with prostitutes in New York and New Jersey. Sterks own realization of her ability to extricate herself from the community and rejoin her own World, a world of safety and stability confirmed her status as outsider Sterk, 1996, p. 92). Nancy Kalow (1996) supports Malinowskis assertion of the importance of distance when analysing data. She reports her research experience something she only identified once she stepped outside of the role of participant- observer and became an observer of her data. This raises the issue of transition from participant-observer to observer/interpreter. By positioning oneself as interpreter or analyst, the researcher creates an academic distance from those they observe, voiding their participant status. Susan Krieger (1996) extends this argument hrough her experience as a functioning member of the community under study. Krieger found her membership identification did not automatically afford her insight into the group and, through her efforts to interpret data, she came to realize that she had become estranged from her participants and her study. It was only through a process of reengagement that she was able to again locate herself within the group and successfully analyze her data, a process at odds with Malinowskis second imperative (Krieger, 1996, p 183). Thus, Malinowskis ethnographer as tool is still a guiding principle of anthropological fieldwork. However, the location and position of this tool with relation to the community under study has evolved from Malinowskis limited perception of its scope. To simply be positioned right among the natives (Malinowski, 1922, p. 6) does not automatically provide the ethnographer with an insiders view. It is this realization that has shaped and is still shaping the way fieldwork in modern anthropology is approached. The focus of anthropology can also been seen to have evolved in terms of the premises upon which Malinowski based his anticipated outcomes of research when compared to those of modern ethnographers. The primary purpose of anthropological research identified by Malinowski was that of understanding tribal life objectively and scientifically, in terms of systems of social machinery and presenting this for consumption to a Western audience (Malinowski, 1922, p. 109; McGee Warms, 2008). This raises two issues apparent in modern anthropology. First, the relevance, usefulness and problematic nature of a purely objective paradigm within anthropology; and second, the motivations underlying anthropological research and fieldwork. Striving for the scientific view of things, a central tenet of Malinowskis (1922, p. ) anthropology, has been challenged by modern anthropologists. The challenge raises two primary questions. First, is it possible or useful within such a personal contextual field as anthropology to discount subjectivity as an authentic mode of analysis. Krieger (1996) identifies this as a problem inherent in the writing of social science and argues that through ethnography we are not writing about the other but, in fact, writing about the self. She also touches on the second question, from where have our acceptable scientific/ob]ective truths originated? The objective paradigm underlying ocial science denies self-expression, narrowing the scope of understanding to that ofa predominately male, middle-class, Western, academic one. This point appears to lie outside the realm of Malinowskis consideration and is indicative of his socio- historical epoch. The purpose of research for Malinowski (1922, p. 25) was to shed light on our own (Western) mentality, informing Western science and academia. While modern anthropology still endeavours to uncover systems and social structures it does so from the standpoint of advancement or empowerment of those communities it studies, not to exclusively inform Western science (Kirby, Greaves, Reid, 2006). For example, Annette Lareaus (1996) study seeks to reveal patterns of an intention to inform educational policy and effect change within schooling systems. Similarly, Sterks (1996) study of prostitutes examines the relationship between prostitution, drugs use and AIDS, searching for cross-cultural patterns in order to address the HIV/AIDS crisis. In this way, anthropology is still approached from a scientific paradigmatic orientation. However, what drives the research has changed. Considering the needs of the community, and how a study is designed to identify and ddress those needs, has become a powerful impetus for anthropological research. Thus, while modern anthropology shares a similar scientific goal with Malinowski, the goalposts have shifted. The question of who benefits from anthropological study has become an important consideration for any modern anthropological researcher (Kirby, Greaves Reid, 2006). This leads the discussion to the issue of ethics. Malinowskis (1922, p. 24) third goal involves collection of ethnographic statements to be used as documents of native mentality. These documents consist of information that is personal and belonging to those of whom he is studying. At no time during Malinowskis description of ethnographic methodology does he address the ethical issues of participant consent, or to what extent his role as researcher will affect the community he is studying. These are all areas of central importance and concern for the modern anthropologist (Kirby, Greaves Reid, 2006). Before undertaking any anthropological study, it is standard modern practice to obtain consent from those that are being studied. In her study involving school children, parents, teachers and administrators, Lareau (1996) describes in detail the difficulties nherent in this process, but also recognizes that it is a necessary component of fieldwork. The extensive trail of consent outlined by Lareau (1996) raises questions identified by Philippe Bourgois (1991) that are yet to be answered how far back does the line of consent extend? And how does consent, with regards to participant- observation, colour the relationship between observer and observed? These questions are closely related to the role of researcher and their effects on the community which are highlighted by Sterk (1996), who describes grappling with how involved she is willing to become with her participants and how involved her articipants have already become with her. One ethical dilemma identified by Sterk (1996) is that of her role as researcher and what responsibility that carries in terms of intervention. Sterk (1996) cites the dilemma of if and how to intervene when participants who are known to be sharing hypodermic needles are also HIV positive. She cannot address this ethical dilemma other than to retreat to the role of outsider, researcher, ethnographer. This problem is explored by Nancy Scheper-Hughes (1995). Through her work in the field, she raises important questions about the ethnographers role within the community. She argues that one must be willing to contribute and give back to the community, not from the perspective of what the anthropologist identifies as the needs of the community, but what the community itself identifies. These ethical questions and difficulties do not lie within the scope of Malinowskis consideration and highlight the progressive nature of ethnography as a mode of cultural and social (human) analysis. Participant-observation, as Malinowski (1922) conceptualized it, was a process through which the ethnographer entrenched themselves in the daily life and living of the community under study. To grasp the (1922, p. 23) used to summarise this approach to anthropological research. This ideology has shaped modern ethnography more than almost any other influencing factor to date and provides the framework for modern ethnography. However, Malinowskis vision is one that is situated within the colonial, ethnocentric and localized milieu of his time. Anthropology and the world as we know it today has, in many ways, moved on from a perspective that privileges a solely Western view. It now seeks a richer insight into the ways of others by situating the self as other, outsider, intruder, subject. The difficulty of becoming a true insider looms large for ny ethnographer in the field, even when the field is situated within ones own community. The scope of expected outcomes of anthropological research and ethnography has changed considerably since Malinowskis (1922) study of Trobriand Islanders. The purpose of his study can be seen as solely to inform Western culture, not as a way of informing or effecting change for those of whom he studied. Today, participant-observation and ethnography are increasingly becoming based on understanding and knowledge relating to effecting positive change within the community of study. Through ethnography the anthropologist, community and wider ocio-political powers become informed in ways that are designed to benefit those they study. Finally, an area that reveals itself through its omission from Malinowskis work is the ethical issue of subject participation in ethnographic research. The concern of ethical fieldwork has become of paramount importance within anthropological research and has serious ramifications in terms of subject consent and the changing role of researcher within the field. In conclusion, Malinowski was a man who, in many ways, was ahead of his time. His contribution to ethnographic method in anthropological research is arguably the most important thus far. However, as peoples understanding and expectation of social science and cultural difference expands, the way in which participant-observation is interpreted also expands and evolves into something that Malinowski may have found difficult to conceive. Malinowski provided a solid framework upon which todays anthropologists can weave a new interpretation to address an ever changing world of humanity. References Bourgois, P. (1991). Confronting the Ethics of Ethnography: Lessons from fieldwork in Central America. In F. Harrison (Ed. ), Decolonizing Anthropology: Moving further toward an anthropology of liberation.